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A Decade of Deteriorating Mental Health in Europe (2013–2023)

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Over the past decade, developed European countries have experienced a marked decline in mental health across the general population. This trend, which was emerging well before the COVID-19 pandemic, has only been exacerbated by recent crises. Rising rates of depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders are being reported from Germany to France, the UK, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Spain, indicating a continent-wide mental health challenge. Below, we explore these trends, discuss key contributing factors – from social media to economic and workplace stressors – and offer policy recommendations to mitigate the crisis.

Worsening Mental Health Trends Across Europe

Surveys and health data since around 2013 show a clear upswing in mental health problems in many European countries. While the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020–2021 caused an acute spike in issues, the overall decline in mental well-being has deeper roots. Some notable indicators include:

Across these countries and others in Europe, the evidence paints a consistent picture: mental health outcomes have deteriorated in the past decade. Depression and anxiety disorders are more common, stress-related ills (like burnout) are soaring, and serious outcomes like self-harm and suicide have shown concerning upticks in some areas. Notably, these trends began well before COVID-19 – the pandemic poured fuel on the fire, but the fire was already lit. Researchers in the UK concluded that a “widespread mental health crisis” was underway by the late 2010s, years prior to the pandemic ( Trends in psychological distress in Great Britain, 1991–2019: evidence from three representative surveys – PMC ). Likewise, Dutch epidemiologists found the rise in disorders from ~17% to 26% prevalence was not explained by COVID ( Prevalence and trends of common mental disorders from 2007‐2009 to 2019‐2022: results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Studies (NEMESIS), including comparison of prevalence rates before vs. during the COVID‐19 pandemic – PMC ). Clearly, broader social forces and lifestyle changes over the 2010s have been driving this decline in mental well-being.

Key Factors Fueling the Mental Health Crisis

What has changed since 2013 to undermine mental health so broadly? Experts point to a confluence of societal shifts and stressors that have intensified over the decade. Five interrelated factors stand out:

1. Social Media Immersion and Digital Overload

The early 2010s saw the explosive growth of smartphones and social media platforms, which has fundamentally changed how people (especially youth) interact and spend time. By 2023, an entire generation has come of age deeply immersed in online life. This digital revolution has benefits – greater connectivity and information access – but also significant mental health downsides:

  • Excessive social media use is linked to higher rates of anxiety, depression, and loneliness. A global meta-analysis confirmed that heavy use of platforms like Facebook and Instagram correlates with worsened mental health, particularly among already-vulnerable individuals ( Social Media Use and Mental Health: A Global Analysis – PMC ). Constant exposure to curated, idealized images of others can fuel feelings of inadequacy and FOMO (fear of missing out). Cyberbullying and online harassment have become common stressors for teens. Moreover, the 24/7 flow of notifications and information leaves little mental downtime, contributing to anxiety.
  • Youth mental health trends bear this out. Across Europe, clinicians have observed sharp increases in depression, self-harm, and suicide attempts among teenagers since around 2012 – the same period when smartphone and social media use became near-ubiquitous. For example, Sweden’s data (cited above) showed dramatically higher anxiety among young people in recent years (Mental well-being, mental distress and mental disorders among children and young adults – terminology, measurement methods and prevalence.). The UK and France have reported similar spikes in teenage hospitalizations for self-harm or eating disorders in the late 2010s. While social media isn’t the sole cause, its omnipresence seems to amplify other adolescent challenges, magnifying peer pressure, body-image issues, and academic stress by making them visible around the clock.
  • “Always online” culture erodes real-life social connections and sleep. Many Europeans, young and old, now spend hours of their day on screens. Excessive screen time often displaces face-to-face social activities, exercise, and sleep – all protective factors for mental health. Surveys find that a significant share of people (especially under 30) habitually scroll social media late into the night, leading to sleep deprivation that heightens anxiety and mood instability. In short, digital overload without healthy boundaries has become a modern mental health risk factor.

2. Economic Instability and Insecurity

The decade from 2013 to 2023 was economically turbulent in ways that directly strained mental well-being. Key stressors have included:

  • Aftershocks of the Great Recession (2008) and Eurozone crisis: Many European countries were still recovering in the early 2010s. High unemployment – especially youth unemployment – persisted in countries like Spain, Italy, and Greece, and even in stronger economies there was an ambient fear of job loss. Research in Spain documented that the economic crisis led to a measurable rise in anxiety and mood disorders by 2010 ( Mental health impact of the economic crisis in Spain – PMC ), with additional impacts unfolding as government austerity measures took effect in 2011–2012. Similarly, in the UK, improvements in population health stalled around 2012; analysts have implicated austerity policies in worsening both physical and mental health trends ( Trends in psychological distress in Great Britain, 1991–2019: evidence from three representative surveys – PMC ). Financial strain (e.g. struggling to pay bills or debts) is a well-known driver of depression, and many households faced exactly that in the past decade.
  • Employment precarity and unemployment: Even as economies recovered on paper, secure, long-term jobs became harder to find for many Europeans – a shift toward part-time, contract, or “gig” employment introduced uncertainty. Southern Europe saw a “lost decade” for youth employment; even in wealthier nations, underemployment and stagnant wages left many feeling left behind. The stress of unstable finances or joblessness has been a significant contributor to poor mental health. For instance, surveys of distressed individuals in Europe show elevated worries about having enough money for housing or food (Mental Health and Substance Use in U.S. and 10 Other Countries | Commonwealth Fund), indicating how economic anxieties and emotional distress go hand-in-hand.
  • Inflation and cost of living pressures: Toward the end of the decade (circa 2021–2023), a surge in inflation across Europe – from energy costs to food prices – created new financial fears. A sudden squeeze on household budgets can trigger or exacerbate mental health issues, as people struggle to make ends meet or fear sliding into poverty. Economic confidence was further shaken by events like the pandemic and geopolitical conflicts (e.g. the war in Ukraine), which introduced volatility. In essence, financial insecurity at both personal and societal levels has been a chronic stressor undermining Europeans’ mental well-being for much of the past ten years.

3. Housing Crises and Cost of Living Strains

Hand-in-hand with economic stress is the housing crisis that many developed European nations have experienced. Since 2013, housing prices and rents in major cities (London, Paris, Berlin, Stockholm, Amsterdam, etc.) have skyrocketed, vastly outpacing wage growth. The resulting affordability gap has serious mental health repercussions:

  • Housing unaffordability is strongly associated with mental distress. Studies confirm that when people are forced to spend a large share of their income on housing, their psychological health suffers. A UK longitudinal study found that sustained exposure to housing affordability problems led to significantly worse mental health outcomes over time ( Trajectories of housing affordability and mental health problems: a population-based cohort study – PMC ). Those who struggled for years with high housing costs had higher risks of depression and anxiety even if their situation later improved. The mental toll comes from chronic worry (e.g. “Will I make rent this month?”), potential overcrowding or substandard living conditions, and the inability to plan securely for the future.
  • Young adults are hit especially hard. In many European cities, younger people find it nearly impossible to purchase a home and often must pay high rent for tiny apartments or live with parents longer. This delays milestones (moving out, starting a family) and breeds frustration and feelings of failure. “Generation Rent” in the UK, for example, reports high levels of anxiety about housing. The sense of stability that comes with secure housing is missing for many under-35s, undermining their mental well-being. A European study across 28 countries found that a lack of affordable housing correlates with poorer self-reported health, particularly mental health, among those renting (Housing affordability and household health. Evidence from 33 EU …).
  • Homelessness and housing precarity: At the extreme end, rising housing costs have contributed to more people falling into homelessness or precarious living (couch surfing, etc.), even in affluent nations. Homelessness is obviously devastating for mental health, but even the fear of it (for those on the edge) can be traumatic. Overall, the housing crisis has created a pervasive undercurrent of stress in daily life – making it harder for people to feel safe, settled, and in control, which are crucial foundations for good mental health.

4. Work-Life Imbalance and Burnout Culture

Another major factor is the changing nature of work and work-life balance in the 2010s. Despite Europe’s reputation for worker protections, many people have experienced a deterioration in work-life balance and increased job stress in recent years:

  • Rising work intensity: Organizations have become leaner and more efficiency-driven, often requiring employees to “do more with less.” Many workers report higher workloads and faster pace of work than a decade ago (Strengthening resilience and mental health in the workplace). The digitalization of work means constant emails, messages, and the blurring of boundaries between office and home life. A German analysis notes that people feel they must be “available at all times” and juggle more complex tasks in less time (Strengthening resilience and mental health in the workplace). This relentless pressure with little respite fuels chronic stress.
  • Longer hours and an “always on” expectation: While official working hours in Europe haven’t dramatically lengthened, the effective hours (including unpaid overtime, checking emails at home, etc.) have crept up for many. The COVID-era shift to remote work further blurred boundaries, with many employees struggling to unplug. As a result, burnout – characterized by mental and physical exhaustion – has become widespread. For instance, in a pan-European survey, 19% of employees reported feeling exhausted at least weekly due to work already back in 2013, and this likely worsened through the 2010s (data from EU’s Eurofound indicates increasing stress and burnout complaints) ([PDF] Impact of the crisis on working conditions in Europe – Eurofound).
  • Poor work-life balance impacts mental health: When people cannot find time to rest, see family, or pursue hobbies, their mental resilience erodes. Europe has seen higher reported rates of burnout, depression, and anxiety related to work strain. One global poll in 2023 found that 44% of workers felt “very stressed” on a daily basis (Strengthening resilience and mental health in the workplace) – a record high. In the EU specifically, employee engagement is low and stress is high, leading commentators to say “Europe gets life right, but work wrong.” The emotional fallout of chronic overwork can include irritability, sleep problems, depression, and a sense of emptiness or cynicism (classic burnout symptoms). Work is a central part of adult life; when it becomes all-consuming or dehumanizing, overall mental health inevitably suffers.
  • Crises adding extra strain: External crises in the past decade (financial crashes, the pandemic, etc.) also placed extra burdens on workers. People feared layoffs during tough times and stretched themselves to keep jobs. Frontline workers (like healthcare staff during COVID) faced extreme stress. Even climate anxiety has crept into workplaces, as employees juggle their jobs while worrying about the planet’s future. All told, the modern workplace has for many become a significant source of psychological strain rather than stability.

5. Rise of AI and Job Automation Fears

In the latter part of the decade, a new stressor emerged: the rapid rise of artificial intelligence (AI) and automation. Technological change has always affected labor markets, but the pace and visibility of recent AI advances (like machine learning and robotics, and more recently generative AI) have left many European workers anxious about their livelihoods:

  • Fear of job displacement: Surveys show that large numbers of workers worry about technology making their roles obsolete. An EY poll in mid-2024 found that over two-thirds of employees (68%) across nine European countries expect AI to lead to job losses in their field (More than two out of three employees in Europe fear job losses due to artificial intelligence | EY – Switzerland). In countries like Spain and Italy, nearly 3 in 4 workers are concerned their jobs will be eliminated due to AI within the next decade (More than two out of three employees in Europe fear job losses due to artificial intelligence | EY – Switzerland). Even in tech-forward economies like Germany or the Netherlands, a majority share this concern (around 60% in those countries) (More than two out of three employees in Europe fear job losses due to artificial intelligence | EY – Switzerland). This widespread job insecurity – essentially a fear of “will a robot or algorithm take my job?” – is a relatively new psychological burden on the workforce.
  • Uncertainty and change stress: Beyond the fear of outright job loss, AI is changing the nature of work in more subtle ways (tasks being automated, new skills required). Many people feel unprepared to adapt, leading to anxiety about falling behind. For example, older workers or those in routine jobs may feel overwhelmed by the pressure to constantly “upskill” to stay relevant. Uncertainty is a prime driver of anxiety, and the AI revolution has introduced plenty of uncertainty in the workplace.
  • Broader existential worries: On a societal level, public discourse about AI has at times been alarmist (with talk of mass unemployment or AI surpassing human control). While speculative, these narratives can heighten people’s sense of existential dread. Younger generations, already coping with climate anxiety, now also grapple with automation anxiety – unsure what careers will be safe in the future. In combination with existing economic pressures, the rise of AI has added another layer of chronic worry for many, which can feed into depression and hopelessness if not addressed.

Interconnected Nature of These Factors

It’s important to note that these factors do not operate in isolation – they often exacerbate one another. For instance, social media amplifies economic and work stress (e.g., people constantly compare themselves to peers’ career and lifestyle successes online, which can worsen feelings of inadequacy during hard times). Housing and economic precarity go hand in hand, and their combined strain can fray family and social relationships, leading to isolation. A person might simultaneously be dealing with all of the above: e.g. a young worker in London who works long hours, can barely afford rent, mindlessly scrolls Instagram each night, and now fears her job could be outsourced to AI – it’s a recipe for mental distress.

Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic (while not the focus here) acted as a pressure-cooker that intensified these issues. Lockdowns increased social media usage, economic instability (furloughs, layoffs), and blurred work-life boundaries to the extreme, while also triggering loneliness and health anxiety. Many countries observed record-high levels of mental health problems in 2020–2021 – for example, global prevalence of anxiety and depression jumped 25% per WHO (COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety …). Although some metrics improved after lockdowns ended, the underlying decade-long trends have not fully reversed. In fact, the pandemic may have caused lasting scarring (e.g. children who fell behind socially, workers who burned out).

In summary, the mental health decline in Europe has been driven by a perfect storm of modern stressors: a hyper-connected digital life, persistent economic and housing insecurities, eroding work-life boundaries, and rapid technological changes. These forces have strained traditional sources of meaning and support (secure jobs, community bonds, downtime for recovery), leaving many people psychologically vulnerable.

Policy Recommendations for Mitigating the Crisis

Turning the tide on this mental health crisis will require concerted action from governments, institutions, and communities. There is no single quick fix – a comprehensive approach addressing both the symptoms and root causes is needed. Below are several policy and program recommendations to improve mental health outcomes in the coming years:

  • Strengthen Mental Health Care Systems and Access: First and foremost, ensure that those who are struggling can get help promptly. This means investing in mental health services – training and hiring more psychologists, psychiatrists, and counselors, and integrating them into primary care. European health systems should treat mental health on par with physical health. For example, France is exploring ways to break down silos between physical and mental healthcare and deliver a more patient-centered approach (The French Brief – Four Good Reasons to Change Our Mental Healthcare System | Institut Montaigne). Such integration (sometimes called “collaborative care”) has proven effective at improving outcomes and can even reduce overall costs (The French Brief – Four Good Reasons to Change Our Mental Healthcare System | Institut Montaigne). Reducing wait times for therapy, expanding insurance coverage for mental health, and offering tele-mental health options (as trialed during COVID) are key steps. Preventive check-ups for mental well-being (akin to annual physicals) could be introduced. Ultimately, no one seeking help for depression or anxiety should be told to wait months – early intervention is crucial.
  • Increase Mental Health Awareness and Reduce Stigma: Governments and NGOs should mount public education campaigns to normalize talking about mental health and seeking care. Despite progress, stigma remains a barrier – recall that about half of adults with mental disorders receive no treatment (The French Brief – Four Good Reasons to Change Our Mental Healthcare System | Institut Montaigne), often due to shame or lack of knowledge. National anti-stigma initiatives (such as the UK’s Time to Change campaign) and school-based mental health literacy programs can shift attitudes. Teaching coping skills and emotional resilience from a young age (through school curricula or youth programs) will equip the next generation to better handle stress. Furthermore, involving people with lived experience in policy design (to ensure empathy and relevance) can help services truly meet patients’ needs, encouraging more to come forward.
  • Regulate and Guide Healthy Social Media Use: To address the digital dimension, policymakers can consider safeguards around social media and smartphone use, particularly for children and teenagers. This might include setting enforceable age minimums and parental controls for social platforms, tighter oversight of content that promotes self-harm or eating disorders, and requiring tech companies to make algorithms more transparent (so harmful effects can be studied and mitigated). Some European countries are debating limits on addictive app features (in the way regulations exist for gambling machines). Schools can incorporate digital literacy and well-being training – teaching youth about responsible use, fact-checking, and balancing online/offline life. While outright bans are unrealistic, public health guidelines (similar to nutrition or exercise guidelines) can be promoted, e.g. recommending screen-free family time, tech “curfews” at night for better sleep, etc. Government might also support the development of healthier social media platforms or campaigns like “Scroll Free September” to nudge behavior change. The goal is to reap the connectivity benefits of digital tech without letting it poison mental well-being.
  • Bolster Economic Support and Job Security: Given the strong link between financial insecurity and mental health, economic policy is mental health policy. Governments should strengthen social safety nets that cushion people from shocks. This includes unemployment benefits, debt relief programs, and job retraining schemes. For instance, in the face of AI disruption, offering upskilling and reskilling programs can alleviate workers’ fears by empowering them with new skills for emerging roles. Active labor market policies – like job placement assistance and apprenticeships – can particularly help young people find stable work and avoid the scarring effect of long-term joblessness. Policymakers should also weigh the mental health impact of any future austerity measures; evidence from the 2010s suggests harsh budget cuts can inadvertently harm population mental health ( Trends in psychological distress in Great Britain, 1991–2019: evidence from three representative surveys – PMC ) ( Mental health impact of the economic crisis in Spain – PMC ). Instead, investing in job creation and inclusive growth (even if it means higher public spending) can pay dividends in well-being. In workplaces, encouraging secure contracts over precarious “gig” arrangements when possible will give workers peace of mind. Companies can be incentivized (or even mandated) to provide mental health supports – e.g. employee assistance programs, access to counseling, and training for managers to spot and address burnout in staff.
  • Tackle the Housing Affordability Crisis: To relieve the intense pressure that housing costs place on mental health, bold housing policies are needed. This could involve increasing the supply of affordable housing through government-backed construction, zoning reforms to allow more housing in high-demand areas, and expanded social housing programs. Some cities have experimented with rent caps or controls to curb runaway rents – such measures, if carefully implemented, can prevent displacement and give renters stability. Governments might also provide rental assistance or housing vouchers to low-income individuals to ensure no one has to choose between paying rent and buying food. The European Union, in its post-COVID recovery plans, encouraged member states to invest in social infrastructure including housing – following through on this would reduce one major source of mental stress. Another idea is to support co-living and community housing initiatives that not only provide affordable shelter but also foster social connection (thereby combating loneliness while solving housing needs). In short, reclaiming housing as a basic right rather than a speculative investment (as one study noted, the financialization of housing has “priced out many from the housing market” ( Trajectories of housing affordability and mental health problems: a population-based cohort study – PMC )) will remove a growing weight from people’s minds.
  • Promote Work-Life Balance and Healthy Workplaces: Governments and employers must work together to recalibrate the work-life equation. On the policy side, European countries could strengthen labor laws that protect personal time – for example, France’s “right to disconnect” law, which gives employees the right to ignore work emails outside of work hours, is a pioneering step that other nations can adopt. Experiments with reduced working hours (such as four-day work weeks or 6-hour days) have shown promising results in improving worker well-being without harming productivity; these could be expanded if culturally feasible. At a minimum, enforcing existing limits on working hours and cracking down on unpaid overtime would help. Workplace mental health standards should be developed, similar to occupational safety standards – this might cover everything from having a certain ratio of mental health days allowed, to requiring companies to assess and mitigate psychosocial risks (high workload, bullying, etc.). Employers, for their part, can implement policies like flexible scheduling (to help employees balance family responsibilities), provide on-site or virtual counseling, normalize taking vacations and mental health leave, and train leadership to cultivate a supportive work culture. Preventing burnout should be seen as an organizational priority – after all, employees who are rested and healthy are more productive long-term. Some companies in Europe have started appointing Chief Well-being Officers or launching stress reduction programs. These efforts need to spread. Essentially, the message should be that constant grind is not sustainable; a healthier work-life balance is both possible and beneficial for all.
  • Address Broader Social Issues (Loneliness, Community, Purpose): Finally, a holistic approach recognizes that mental health is influenced by the social fabric. Many Europeans today feel isolated or lacking purpose. Governments can invest in community-building initiatives – for instance, funding clubs, sports, arts, and volunteer programs that bring people together and give them a sense of belonging. Several countries (like the UK and Japan) have even created Ministers or commissions for loneliness, acknowledging it as a public health issue. Urban planning can play a role too: designing cities with green spaces, community centers, and walkable neighborhoods can facilitate casual social interaction and reduce the anonymity that often pervades modern cities. On a more philosophical level, leaders and educators can spur public dialogue about values beyond material success – emphasizing that things like friendship, creativity, and helping others are vital to well-being (as opposed to the intense competition and consumerism that can dominate societies). Reinforcing social cohesion and solidarity (for example, through intergenerational projects that connect youth with elders) can counteract the mental toll of an individualistic, high-pressure culture.

Each of these recommendations addresses a piece of the puzzle. Importantly, multi-sector collaboration will yield the best results. For example, schools can partner with mental health professionals to bring counseling into classrooms; employers can work with government programs to offer apprenticeships that improve young people’s prospects, and tech companies can be part of the solution by promoting digital wellness features on their platforms. The EU’s recently announced comprehensive approach to mental health (2023) advocates exactly this kind of cross-sector strategy, focusing on prevention, access to care, and reintegration of those affected (the EU’s long-awaited comprehensive approach to mental health) (IDF Europe welcomes the Commission’s communication on ‘A …). Backed by funding, such strategic frameworks offer hope that mental health will be taken seriously at all levels of policy.

Conclusion

The past decade’s decline in mental health across Europe is a complex, multifaceted crisis – one that has been long in the making and was amplified by unprecedented global events. Statistics illustrate the gravity: from a 50% jump in Dutch mental disorder prevalence ( Prevalence and trends of common mental disorders from 2007‐2009 to 2019‐2022: results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Studies (NEMESIS), including comparison of prevalence rates before vs. during the COVID‐19 pandemic – PMC ), to record-high stress levels in Germany ( A Multimodal Prevention Program for Stress Reduction: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial – PMC ) and the UK ( Trends in psychological distress in Great Britain, 1991–2019: evidence from three representative surveys – PMC ), to surging youth depression in Sweden (Mental well-being, mental distress and mental disorders among children and young adults – terminology, measurement methods and prevalence.) and France (The French Brief – Four Good Reasons to Change Our Mental Healthcare System | Institut Montaigne). But behind the numbers are millions of individual stories of struggle – people trying to cope with the pressures of modern life and often feeling overwhelmed.

Unlike a viral pandemic, this is not a crisis that will simply “pass.” Reversing these trends requires rethinking how we live and support each other in fundamental ways. The encouraging news is that mental health is now firmly on the public agenda. There is growing recognition that mental health is as important as physical health, and that societal well-being is a key component of progress. By implementing thoughtful policies – from regulating the digital sphere, to securing the social safety net, to humanizing the workplace – European countries can alleviate many of the risk factors driving this crisis. At the same time, expanding access to care ensures those in need don’t fall through the cracks, and education reduces stigma so that mental health struggles are met with compassion, not silence.

In summary, Europe’s mental health decline since 2013 is not an inevitability – it is a trend that can be corrected. With sustained commitment to the recommendations above, governments and communities can help people not just survive, but thrive. The payoff will be substantial: a healthier, more resilient population, better quality of life, and greater productivity and social harmony. The challenges of the 21st century – whether economic, technological, or social – need not lead to ever-rising despair. With proactive measures, Europe can navigate these changes while safeguarding and even strengthening the mental well-being of its people. That is a future worth striving for, and the work towards it must begin now.

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